The Atari 2600, originally branded as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS) until November 1982, is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released on September 11, 1977, it popularized the use of microprocessor-based hardware and of games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridge—initially Combat and later Pac-Man.
Atari was successful at creating arcade games, but their cost to develop and limited lifespan drove CEO Nolan Bushnell to seek a programmable home system. The first inexpensive microprocessors from MOS Technologies in late 1975 made this feasible. Development of the console—known as “Stella” during its prototype stage—was performed by Atari subsidiary Cyan Engineering. Atari was recovering from heavy losses in the 1974 fiscal year, and lacking funding to complete the project, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications in 1976. Warner’s investment helped to hurry completion of the console following the release of the Channel F.
The Atari VCS launched in 1977 with nine simple, low-resolution games in 2 KiB cartridges. The system’s killer app was the home conversion of Taito’s arcade game Space Invaders in 1980. The VCS became widely successful, leading to the creation of Activision and other third-party game developers as well as competition from home console manufacturers Mattel and Coleco. By the end of its primary lifecycle in 1983–84, games for the 2600 were using more than four times the ROM of the launch games with significantly more advanced visuals and gameplay than the system was designed for, such as Activision’s Pitfall!
In 1982, the Atari 2600 was the dominant game system. Amidst competition from both new consoles and game developers, a number of poor decisions from Atari management affected the company and the industry as a whole. The most public was an investment into licensed games for the 2600, including Pac-Man and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Pac-Man became the system’s biggest selling game, but the substandard conversion contributed to a loss of consumer confidence in the console. E.T., rushed to market for the holiday shopping season, was critically panned and a commercial failure. Both games, and a glut of low quality third-party releases, are frequently cited as factors in ending Atari’s relevance in the console market. Atari’s downfall reverberated through the industry resulting in the video game crash of 1983.
Warner sold Atari’s home division to Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended on January 1, 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime.
In addition to third-party game development, Atari also received the first major threat to its hardware dominance from the Colecovision. Coleco had a license from Nintendo to develop a version of the smash hit arcade game Donkey Kong (1981), which was bundled with every Colecovision console. Coleco gained about 17% of the hardware market in 1982 compared to Atari’s 58%. With third parties competing for market share, Atari worked to maintain dominance in the market by acquiring licenses for popular arcade games and other properties to make games from. Pac-Man has numerous technical and aesthetic flaws, but nevertheless more than 10 million copies were sold. Heading into the 1982 holiday shopping season, Atari had placed high sales expectations on E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, a game programmed in about six weeks, to capture the strong interest in the film. Atari produced an estimated four million cartridges, expecting the game to sell well. The game was poorly reviewed, leading to only about 1.5 million units sold.[35]
Warner Communications reported weaker results than expected in December 1982 to its shareholders, having expected a 50% year-to-year growth but only obtaining 10–15% due to declining sales at Atari. Coupled with the oversaturated home game market, Atari’s weakened position led investors to start pulling funds out of video games, beginning a cascade of disastrous effects known as the video game crash of 1983. Many of the third-party developers formed prior to 1983 were closed, and Mattel and Coleco left the video game market by 1985.
In September 1983, Atari sent 14 truckloads of unsold Atari 2600 cartridges and other equipment to a landfill in the New Mexico desert, later labeled the Atari video game burial. Long considered an urban legend that claimed the burial contained millions of unsold cartridges, the site was excavated in 2014, confirming reports from former Atari executives that only about 700,000 cartridges had actually been buried. Atari reported a $536 million loss for 1983 as a whole, and continued to lose money into 1984, with a $425 million loss reported in the second quarter. By mid-1984, software development for the 2600 had essentially stopped except that of Atari and Activision.
Warner, wary of supporting its failing Atari division, started looking for buyers in 1984. Warner sold most of Atari to Jack Tramiel, the founder of Commodore International, in July 1984 for about $240 million, though Warner retained Atari’s arcade business. Tramiel was a proponent of personal computers, and de-prioritized further 2600 development following the sale.
The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo’s 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of “under 50 bucks”. With a large library of cartridges and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released the last batch of games in 1989–90 including Secret Quest and Fatal Run. The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only version of the arcade game KLAX in 1990.
After more than 14 years on the market, the 2600 line was formally discontinued on January 1, 1992, along with the Atari 7800 and Atari 8-bit family of home computers.
The 1986 model has a smaller, cost-reduced form factor with an Atari 7800-like appearance. It was advertised as a budget gaming system (under US$49.99) with the ability to run a large collection of games. Released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting “The fun is back!” Atari released several minor stylistic variations: the “large rainbow”, “short rainbow”, and an all-black version sold only in Ireland. Later European versions include a joypad.
You may have been hearing about the ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel. This post will tell you about what is going on in this region of the Middle East and how it has come to be.
The current conflict stems from a legal agreement during the British Mandate period that attempted to balance between Palestinian Arab and Jewish claims to land in Palestine. The agreement allowed Jews to establish homes in a part of Palestine, called “the Jewish National Home”, with the understanding that they would eventually form a majority where they were not already when World War II started. This was never achieved and instead, Jews constituted about one-third of total population at that time while also owning one-third of total agricultural acreage. The territory that was to become the Jewish National Home was named Palestine by the Ottomans in 1915 without consulting with (or even alerting) the indigenous Palestinian population. The British later adopted this name in 1920, after obtaining a mandate from the prior Ottoman government in 1922 to govern Palestine .
The 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine against Jewish immigration and British colonial rule saw large numbers of Jews killed or injured. The violence prompted international criticism and a United States-endorsed plan to partition former Ottoman territory into two states . However, Arabs rejected this plan, as they believed it would create further conflict by creating an Arab state while leaving all major Jewish population centers under British rule.
In 1947, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) proposed a partition plan to resolve the Arab–Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into two states and letting the Palestinians and Jews who immigrated there vote to determine which state they would join. The plan passed in the General Assembly with a two-thirds majority but was opposed, mainly by Arabs. The plan was formally accepted by Britain as the governing authority in Palestine, with no input from any Palestinian Arabs. Many of them had advocated for a single state in which Jews and Arab Palestinians would have equal rights.
The day after its adoption, Arab leaders met at Sèvres and issued their opposition to the Partition plan. The following day, Jerusalem was captured by the Arab Legion and Violence broken out between Jews and Arabs in various parts of Palestine. The next day, the British government announced its decision to terminate its mandate in Palestine. The State of Israel was proclaimed, an independent Jewish state with its capital in Jerusalem. By the end of the month most Palestinian Arab areas had been occupied by Israel.
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was established at this time based on the principles of Palestinian Arab nationalism and formed to coordinate resistance against Israel’s existence, as well as for all purposes to replace the discontinued Arab League as a representative body for all Palestinian Arabs worldwide. The PLO was declared the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by both the UN and many Arab countries.
Since then, warfare has continued between Israel and other Arab states on one side, and between Israel and other Palestinians on the other. The conflict has become known as “The Israeli–Palestinian Conflict” in English but is usually simply called “the Arab–Israeli conflict”, or simply “the Middle East conflict”, in Arabic or other languages.
In 1949, the first state for Jewish Israelis was declared by members of Knesset (Israeli parliament). It became known as the State of Israel, which later changed its name to Israeli to reflect this new statehood. Some Arabs and Palestinians opposed the declaration of the state, considering it to be an illegal act.
By 1950, four Arab states invaded and occupied Palestinian territory in what is known as the 1948 Arab–Israeli War (also called the “War of Independence” by Israel), which ended with an Israeli victory. The conflict was fought between Israel and a coalition of Arab states that had formed under British sponsorship during World War II to defend Palestine while it was still under occupation by Islamic forces (see also Israeli–Lebanese war). The hostilities ended on May 15, 1949, when Israel signed an armistice agreement with Jordan and Egypt. By the terms of the agreement, Egypt was to withdraw all its forces from the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula within three months, and would have returned the territories by October 15, 1949. During the war, Syria had sent a small detachment of troops to assist Jordan.
In 1950, British-mediated negotiations preceding Britain’s withdrawal from the area ended with a UN Security Council resolution recommending that both sides should be prepared to cease fighting upon Israel’s withdrawal. Jordan agreed that Transjordan would be an independent state in line with the resolution. The Resolution ofistance was a central agreement reached by those involved in negotiating an agreement between Israelis and Palestinians following 1948 war.
Before the Jordanian annexations of the West Bank, in April 1950, the All-Palestine Government was declared and recognized by Egypt and Syria. It lasted for just over one year and was headed by Ahmed Hilmi Pasha. This government was considered illegitimate by Israel and most of the international community. Only Arab League members recognized its existence, but even they were divided in their attitude towards it: while Egypt accepted it as a temporary measure subject to a future settlement, Syria regarded it as a substitute for permanent solution based on UNGA 194; Iraq took neither side. Upon cessation of activities of this government, many of its Palestinian personnel left Gaza Strip for Egypt or Jordan.
On the eve of the 1967 Six-Day War, the area was made up of Israeli-administered areas (including East Jerusalem) and Jordanian-administered areas (the West Bank). On May 14, Israel launched a preemptive air strike on the Egyptian Army’s headquarters in Abdeen Square, Cairo.
The Arab League has urged its members to join the PLO in all combatant duties during 1967 War. The Arab League also supported Egypt and Syria in their war against Israel. Egypt had some success against Israel. The Eilat-Ashkelon Pipeline was bombed by Egypt at this time, though they failed to destroy it completely. Israel responded with a series of air raids that destroyed most of the Egyptian Air Force. Egypt was expelled from the league, and came under the control of Syria.
Most Arab countries boycotted any UN peace initiative which would result in a state for Arabs in Jerusalem or West Bank territory. On March 22, 1974, the PLO was recognized by Syria as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and by all Arab states except Iraq. In April 1974, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat met with King Hussein of Jordan at an Arab League summit in Rabat, Morocco. According to “The New York Times” report: “King Hussein told Mr. Arafat that he would meet his commitments as an Arab leader and offered him the official protocol of the league, while the PLO chairman promised to recognize King Hussein as King of Jordan.”
The Israeli Army then launched a surprise attack on the Syrian-backed PLO in Lebanon, using airstrikes, armored raids and artillery. In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon. This was done to end attacks on northern Israel by Palestinian guerrillas based in Lebanon. The invasion was also an attempt to create a zone free of these kinds of attacks along Northern Israel’s border with Lebanon; however, it has resulted in civilian casualties among Lebanese and Palestinians alike. This led to United States Marines entering Beirut as a peacekeeping force.
The Soviet Union was invited by the PLO to become an observer at the conference in Algiers. The Soviets stated that they would help Arafat, but the US demanded that he not be given anything from the conference.
In May 1982, the PLO’s parliamentary leadership held its first meeting in Damascus, Syria, and agreed to negotiate with Israel, based on UN Security Council Resolution 242. The PLO began talks under Syrian auspices and offered to meet Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin in September 1982. Israel refused to negotiate until it had bombed Beirut twice (twice), in October and again in January 1983.
Attempts at peace negotiations were fruitless until March 1983, when U.S. intervention brought about the agreement in May to establish a ceasefire and the withdrawal of PLO forces from Lebanon in exchange for a cessation of Israeli attacks. In August 1983, Israel and Lebanon reached an accord for the withdrawal of Israeli troops from most of Lebanon. The agreement was signed on 23 May by Israel and by representatives of Syria, Lebanon, the P.L.O., and some other factions.
The 1982 PLO-Israel Agreement on Palestinian Self-Rule in Gaza and Jericho was signed on September 9, 1982 between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). It took effect Apr. 22, 1983, the date on which the PLO agreed to withdraw its forces from Lebanon as part of the Israeli-Lebanese understanding. It was superseded by later agreements in which Israel accepted the PLO’s presence in and control of areas A and B (the West Bank), Golan Heights, and Eastern Jerusalem.
Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon—The 1982 Israeli-Lebanese Agreement for Peace between Israel and the P.L.O. ended the war of attrition Israel had carried out in Lebanon since June 1982. The hostilities also ended the PLO’s paramount claim to represent the Palestinian people.
Israel had already launched a series of limited military operations in Lebanon and, by July 1984, had reached agreement for a comprehensive peace settlement with the government of resigned prime minister Shafik al-Wazzan. The U.S., however, was unwilling to press for agreement with al-Wazzan’s government unless certain Lebanese political and military forces were first neutralized. To that end, Israeli and U.S. officials secretly met with Syrian, Saudi, and Qatari officials at an international conference in Geneva in August 1984. They agreed that the Lebanese Shi’a group of General Michel ‘Aflaq and the Lebanese Sunni groups of Kamal Jumblatt and Sulaiman Abu Ghazaleh would be prime ministers of a future government.
In March 1985, Israeli forces launched a major invasion of Lebanon. It ended with the Israeli withdrawal from Beirut on September 16, 1985. This left the PLO as the sole authority in Lebanon for the first time since 1967. In February 1986, Israel and Syria signed an unprecedented peace treaty that gave Damascus control over sections of Lebanese capital Beirut.
The 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence stated that it was a result of the Israeli occupation, Israel’s military attacks on the Gaza Strip, and the economic blockade imposed by Israel. The document also stated that “Resistance will continue to liberate all Palestinian and Arab lands occupied since 1967.” The PLO established the Palestine National Council in July 1988 based on an agreement with Jordan. The council had 667 members as of 1990.
In 1988, General Michel Aoun led an attempted coup against Syrian President Hafez al-Assad in Lebanon. The Syrian government sent armed forces to quell the rebellion and had Aoun arrested, imprisoned, tried and convicted in absentia.
During the 1991 Gulf War, many Arab states led by Syria and Iraq joined the war in support of Iraq.
In 1992, the First Intifada began in Gaza and the West Bank. The Intifada was an uprising by Palestinian Arabs against Israeli occupation of the occupied territories and specifically against Jewish settlements located on land that they considered ancestral for Palestinians Arabs. It is considered to be a large-scale campaign of civil disobedience that started as massive demonstrations but later escalated into violence. It lasted until September 2000, when it was violently ended after an event known as the Oslo Accords (also known as Oslo I).
In 1997, a reconciliation agreement was signed between Jordan and Israel. This agreement led to the cancellation of the clause stipulating that the Kingdom of Jordan was responsible for protecting Palestinians.
In March 1998, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat signed an agreement at Wye Plantation, Maryland. This agreement led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty, which was signed in July. By coming to an agreement with Israel, Jordan had withdrawn all claims to sovereignty over the West Bank establishing a Palestinian state. In addition, any land that had been under Israeli control since 1967 that is “west of the Green Line” (the armistice line established after Israel’s War of Independence) would be returned to Jordan’s full administration.
In December 1998, President Bill Clinton invited Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat to Camp David. This summit was a follow-up to the peace talks that had begun at the White House in July.
In August 2000, Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon made a provocative visit to Jerusalem’s most sacred site, the Dome of the Rock (Temple Mount) on Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The next day, violence erupted between Palestinians and Israelis. This violence led to the Al Aqsa Intifada which caused many causalities on each side. In 2004, Israel pulled out of Gaza but kept control over its borders, airspace and coast-line waters.
Under the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority was established. This was a result of negotiations between Israel and Yasser Arafat. The purpose of these negotiations was to create a Palestinian state, based on territorial lines that existed before 1967 but carved out of Palestinian-administered areas and Israeli-administered areas. It would have been within the borders outlined by UNSC Resolution 242 (with some modifications) and would have been at least partly sovereign. Israel agreed to permit the establishment of a Palestinian state. It would be up to the Palestinian people and their leaders to choose whether that state’s borders would match those of Israel. The Israeli government, on the other hand, agreed that it would not annex any territory nor settle in those areas.
Arafat was elected as president of the Palestinian National Authority in 1996 and 1997. He died in Paris on 11 November 2004 after a series of strokes. Upon his death, Mahmoud Abbas became Arafat’s successor as Chairman (President) of the PNA.
The Palestinian National Charter, adopted in 1964, called for the liberation of Palestine and the establishment of an independent Palestinian state. It also contained a clause specifying that this state would be based on the borders established before 1948.
According to Article 2 of the Oslo accords, “The State of Israel recognizes that Palestine with its boundaries as they existed on 15 May 1948 is a single, regular, and indivisible unit” [sic]. The Israeli government has made clear that while it accepts this article as defining its borders in principle, it has not accepted the clause expressing a Palestinian demand for the return to its pre-1967 frontiers: “Israel will respect existing agreements and arrangements …. Israel will seek to conclude agreements with all those concerned. But it will not be bound by any agreement between others and the State of Israel will have no obligation to accept the provisions of any agreement which may be concluded between others.” (Oslo accords: Agreement on Palestinian Self-Government: Annex I)
On Palestine, the conventions and decisions of the United Nations are accepted in full. The State of Israel will take all measures within its power to ensure that these decisions and conventions are implemented in their entirety by all parties concerned. (Oslo accords: Agreement on Palestinian Self-Government: Annex II. Bilateral declaration of Israel and Palestine, Official English version.)
The Oslo accords specified which issues would be discussed in negotiations between the Israeli government and the Palestinian National Authority. The Israeli government would lay out its position on the issue and the Palestinian National Authority would then formulate its position. The negotiations would be conducted directly between the two parties, separate from discussions with other countries. (Oslo accords: Agreement on Palestinian Self-Government.)
The Oslo accords defined which issues would not be discussed for the time being: Jerusalem, refugees, security and settlement in Judea and Samaria. (Oslo accords: Agreement on Palestinian Self-Government: Annex III. Bilateral Declaration of the Government of Israel and the P.L.O., Official English version.)
The Oslo accords also stated that negotiations on Jerusalem were not to be discussed until the Palestinian National Authority had “meaningfully carried out its security responsibilities” in accordance with a timetable set by the Israeli government. (Oslo accords: Agreement on Palestinian Self-Government: Annex III.)
The Oslo accords also stated that negotiations on refugees would not be discussed until there was a “permanent settlement based on Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338.” (Oslo accords: Agreement on Palestinian Self-Government: Annex III.
Between 1700 and 1789, the French population increased from 18 million to 26 million, leading to large numbers of unemployed, accompanied by sharp increases in food prices caused by years of bad harvests.[2] Widespread social distress led to the convocation of the Estates General in May 1789, the first since 1614. In June, the Estates were converted into a National Assembly, which passed a series of radical measures, among them the abolition of feudalism, state control of the Catholic Church and extending the right to vote.
This sparked the Reign of Terror, an attempt to eradicate alleged “counter-revolutionaries”; by the time it ended in July 1794, over 16,600 had been executed in Paris and the provinces. As well as external enemies, the Republic faced a series of internal Royalist and Jacobin revolts; in order to deal with these, the French Directory took power in November 1795. Despite military success, the war led to economic stagnation and internal divisions, and in November 1799 the Directory was replaced by the Consulate.
Many Revolutionary symbols such as La Marseillaise and phrases like Liberté, égalité, fraternité reappeared in other revolts, such as the 1917 Russian Revolution.[3] Over the next two centuries, its key principles like equality would inspire campaigns for the abolition of slavery and universal suffrage.[4] Its values and institutions dominate French politics to this day, and many historians regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in recent history.[5]
From the late 17th century on, political and cultural debate became part of wider European society, rather than being confined to a small elite. This took different forms, such as the English ‘coffeehouse culture‘, and extended to areas colonised by Europeans, particularly British North America. Contacts between diverse groups in Edinburgh, Geneva, Boston, Amsterdam, Paris, London or Vienna were much greater than often appreciated.[9]
Transnational elites who shared ideas and styles were not new; what changed was their extent and the numbers involved.[10] Under Louis XIV, the Court at Versailles was the centre of culture, fashion and political power. Improvements in education and literacy over the course of the 18th century meant larger audiences for newspapers and journals, with Masonic lodges, coffee houses and reading clubs providing areas where people could debate and discuss ideas. The emergence of this so-called “public sphere” led to Paris replacing Versailles as the cultural and intellectual centre, leaving the Court isolated and less able to influence opinion.[11]
In addition to these social changes, the French population grew from 18 million in 1700 to 26 million in 1789, making it the most populous state in Europe; Paris had over 600,000 inhabitants, of whom roughly one third were either unemployed or had no regular work.[12] Inefficient agricultural methods meant domestic farmers could not support these numbers, while primitive transportation networks made it hard to maintain supplies even when there was sufficient. As a result, food prices rose by 65% between 1770 and 1790, yet real wages increased by only 22%.[13] Food shortages were particularly damaging for the regime, since many blamed price increases on government failure to prevent profiteering.[14] By the spring of 1789, a poor harvest followed by a severe winter had created a rural peasantry with nothing to sell, and an urban proletariat whose purchasing power had collapsed.[15]By 1789, France was the most populous country in Europe.
The other major drag on the economy was state debt. Traditional views of the French Revolution often attribute the financial crisis to the costs of the 1778–1783 Anglo-French War, but modern economic studies show this is only a partial explanation. In 1788, the ratio of debt to gross national income in France was 55.6%, compared to 181.8% in Britain, and although French borrowing costs were higher, the percentage of revenue devoted to interest payments was roughly the same in both countries.[16] One historian concludes “neither the level of French state debt in 1788, or its previous history, can be considered an explanation for the outbreak of revolution in 1789”.[17]
The problem was French taxes were predominantly paid by the urban and rural poor, while attempts to share the burden more equally were blocked by the regional parlements which controlled financial policy.[18] The resulting impasse in the face of widespread economic distress led to the calling of the Estates-General, which became radicalised by the struggle for control of public finances.[19]
Although not indifferent to the crisis, when faced with opposition Louis tended to back down.[20] The court became the target of popular anger, especially Queen Marie-Antoinette, who was viewed as a spendthrift Austrian spy, and blamed for the dismissal of ‘progressive’ ministers like Jacques Necker. For their opponents, Enlightenment ideas on equality and democracy provided an intellectual framework for dealing with these issues, while the American Revolution was seen as confirmation of their practical application.[21]
The Golden Gate Bridge is a large suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate Strait in America. It is located in the San Francisco Bay Area, and connects San Francisco to Marin County. Completed in 1937, it’s one of the largest bridges in America by length, with a main span of 4200 feet (1280 meters).
The bridge originally opened on May 27th, 1937 at a cost of just under $27 million. It took more than four years to build and was completed ahead of schedule and under budget. More than 200 ships pass beneath the bridge every day – making it an important maritime route from an economic standpoint as well as from a recreational point-of-view.
The cost to cross the bridge varies, depending on the distance traveled. As of 2008, the toll for a vehicle was $5 during non-peak hours, and $6.35 during peak hours.
Before we talk about the history of the Golden Gate bridge, here are the most commonly asked questions.
When did the Golden Gate Bridge collapse?
The Golden Gate bridge collapsed during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Afterward, engineers studied the bridge’s failure and concluded that it was due to high winds.
Engineers designed a new bridge adjacent to the old one with stiffer (and thus less flexible) suspension cables, more distance between these cables and roadway, more towers on the shoreline on both sides of the bridge that also served as anchors for long diagonal cable bracing, and lightening rods
Why is the Golden Gate Bridge so famous?
The Golden Gate bridge is so famous, because it stands as a symbol of San Francisco. The bridge first came to be as a project in 1919, and the first bridge to span the Golden Gate Strait opened in 1937. Construction on the bridge began in 1933 and finished four years later.
Who built the Golden Gate Bridge and why?
The Golden Gate bridge was built by Joseph B. Strauss (1870–1938), an outstanding engineer with a great deal of experience in building bridges and who had already worked on many famous bridges such as the Ohio River Bridge and the New York City Port Authority.
When was the Golden Gate Bridge finished?
The Golden Gate bridge was finished on May 27, 1937. Its construction was planned for 5 years with a cost of $35 million dollars. Its main purpose was to connect the Bay Area to the Pacific coast. It officially opened on May 27, 1937 and at that time it had been built for 14 months and was not fully completed.
Why is the Golden Gate Bridge red?
The reason why the Golden Gate bridge is red is because it was purposely painted red in the 1930s to increase safety and visibility of the structure. The name “golden” came from its yellowish-orange color when seen from a distance but this has faded over the years. The bridge is 5,791 feet long and has a main span of 1,555 feet.
How old is the Golden Gate Bridge?
The Golden Gate bridge is over 100 years old now and has been the tallest bridge in the United States since its construction. The Golden Gate Bridge is a wonderful piece of history that spans along San Francisco Bay, linking the city of San Francisco to Marin County.
What color is the Golden Gate bridge?
The color of the Golden Gate bridge is International Orange, which was chosen because it is the only color that can be seen from all around the bridge. It is also one of the colors of San Francisco’s flag.
The name Golden Gate bridge comes from the Golden Gate strait, which borders San Francisco to the north and Marin County to the south. The strait was named by Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno in 1602, who called it “El puente de las plata que con dorada cornucopia va a descubrir.” or “The bridge of gold that goes over a silver and golden horn that will find an unknown land.”
How long did it take to build the Golden Gate Bridge?
It took 14 years and 2,000 men to build the Golden Gate bridge, and it took 7.6 million pounds of steel and 18 million board feet of lumber. The construction of the bridge was made possible by a $25M grant from President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal program. It was completed in 1937 after 2,200 days of work on the bridge-building site in San Francisco Bay.
What kind of bridge is the Golden Gate Bridge?
The Golden Gate bridge is a suspension bridge that spans the Golden Gate Strait, the narrow portion of the San Francisco Bay. It was built in 1937 with funding from New Deal programs. The bridge’s main span is more than 1,200 feet long, and its total length of 2,200 feet makes it the longest suspension span in North America.
Early Construction Efforts By Railroad Companies
Earlier Efforts To Construct A Bridge Over The Golden Gate Strait Date As Far Back As The 1850’s, But Most Were Done By Railroad Companies Seeking New Paths For The Tracks To Cross Into San Francisco And Other Cities On The Peninsula. This Was Partially Due To San Francisco’s Proximity With Rail Lines Running Northeast Via Sacramento Through Emeryville And Oakland.
In 1869, a bridge was approved by the city’s Board of Supervisors, but plans were changed and a tunnel was built instead. The tunnel was built by the Central Pacific Railroad Company, but due to financial problems it could not be completed until 1880. Its length was four blocks and it ran from Baker Street in the south end to California Street in the north end of downtown San Francisco.
In 1872, a company called “The Union Bridge Company” proposed an iron railroad bridge to span the Golden Gate Strait. The proposal called for a single track rail line to cross from Oakland to San Francisco as well as construction of piers within the strait itself. However, this plan was not adopted.
The Railroad Bridge That Was Built in 1876 Was The Most Significant Bridge Built In San Francisco And The First To Be Made With Iron. It Was Made Up Of Larger Gauge Rail Tracks Which Provided For Much Longer Span And Greater Current Capacity Than The Old Wooden Docks Used In The Past. This Bridge Also Moved Between The Bays As Part Of Railroad Plans For Expansion.
In 1909, the city’s Board of Supervisors approved plans for a bridge from Marin County to San Francisco when they were presented by the Southern Pacific Railroad Company. Construction on the bridge began in 1912 and was completed in 1915. The bridge was called “The Golden Gate Bridge” and it connected Marin County to the city of San Francisco.
In 1911, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) was asked to determine whether a bridge could be built from San Francisco to Marin County. The group said that it would be impossible, but noted that a ferry ride would be less costly. In 1912, the President of The Southern Pacific Railroad Company said that a bridge over the Golden Gate Strait could only support a light railroad line and not a heavy train line connecting with Sacramento. He also stated that there was no need for such a connection in any event since the railroad already had multiple connections in Oakland and North Berkeley which were sufficient for their needs.
In 1917, the U.S. War Department requested a report from the Army Corps of Engineers on locations where a bridge could be built for their purposes. The group proposed several sites including the Golden Gate Strait as well as locations in South San Francisco and near Oakland’s shoreline. In 1922, their report noted that a bridge over the Golden Gate Strait would take ten years to construct and cost $100 million to build if it connected with existing roads in Marin County. It would also require a tunnel under Mount Tamalpais at a cost of $17 million for pedestrian use. A new highway would also need to be developed for $13 million.
Bids For The Golden Gate Bridge Project Were Submitted In 1916, But The War Department Denied The Project At That Time Due To A Lack Of Funds For Construction.
In 1916, bids were submitted to build the bridge and the lowest bid of $5.1 million was submitted by a group called “The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District“. However, the Army Corps of Engineers denied the bid since it did not have sufficient funds to finance construction of such a bridge at that time.
In 1922, the city’s Board of Supervisors approved a plan to build a bridge from Marin County to San Francisco that was estimated to cost $50 million. The bridge was then in the planning stages. In October of 1923, a group called “The Bridge District” submitted a bid for the project and it called for construction of a two-lane train bridge with tunnels beneath Mount Tamalpais at a cost of $44 million.
In 1924, The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District awarded three contracts covering the construction of approaches and viaducts on both sides of the Golden Gate Strait. The three contracts added up to $1.7 million and the work was to be completed in 1929. Also in 1924, The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District created a bond issue for $35 million in order to pay for the costs of building the bridge plus other highway-related projects that were planned along with it.
The Work Method Used To Build The Bridge Was Similar To The Construction Model Used For Many Railroad Tunnels Since It Required As Few Employees As Possible Working In Shifts And At Night. This Work Method Also Avoided Attracting Attention From Unions Who Might Interfere With The Project Due To The Lack Of Employment For Their Members.
The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District was created in 1924 by the state legislature after both Marin and San Francisco counties approved construction of a bridge over the Golden Gate Strait. This district was named “The Bridge District” and it also contained an additional board called “The Highway Division”. Both districts were merged into what is now known as the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District (District 3) in 1926. The district had $35 million in bonds which was to be used to pay for various highway-related projects including construction of the Golden Gate Bridge itself.
In 1931, Bid No. 2 was approved by the District for $901,000 to build the approaches on both sides of the Golden Gate Strait. Also in 1931, Bid No. 3 was awarded for providing car ramps for automobile traffic. The contract cost was $4.5 million and this process of erecting bridges worked on both sides of the strait at this time.
In 1933, Bid No. 4 was approved by the District to provide access routes along Marin County’s coast that would cost $1.5 million to install or repair 5 miles of roadways at a cost of $13,000 per mile throughout Marin County. The purpose of this work was to provide access to the Golden Gate Bridge where there was only a trail and an old sawmill.
In 1934, A Plan Was Approved To Use Steel Girders For The Bridge Approach On A Trial Basis. This Plan Excluded The Heavy Concrete Piers And Riveted Trusses That Had Been Used In The Past Due To Their High Cost. The Steel Approach Girders Were Formed Into “Z” Shaped Frames And These Were Then Suspended From The Cable System That Supported Them With Strong Wire Strings.
A Bridge The Golden Gate Strait Is Only 3,125 Feet Long. By Construction Estimate, It Would Take Just 21 Days To Build The Structure If Every Worker Was Seen to Work At A One-Hour Limit. This Would Need To Be Done On Night Shift Duty Since When Most Of The Workers Were Not Shifting They Were Eating, Sleeping And Going To Meet With Their Friends These These Time Limits Would Have Been Too Short To Allow For That Which Was Necessary.
The Golden Gate Bridge was constructed in the years between 1933 and 1937 at a cost of $46 million, making it one of the most expensive bridges ever built at that time. In 1933, it was estimated that the project would take four years to complete and cost $6 million. Curiously, no one knew how much it would actually end up costing at the time. The construction of the bridge relied heavily on workers who were considered to be “non-union” and this caused considerable problems with organized labor in the area.
The Plan For The Bridge Redesign Was Submitted In 1932 And Approved By Retired U.S. Army Brigadier General William C. Gorgas Who Was Also Consulting With The District At That Time. His Plan Included The Construction Of A New Bridge Approach To Be Built Over A Superseded Railroad Chute Along The Coast. This Approach Was To Be Connected To The Original Route By Means Of A New Bridge That Went Above The Golden Gate Bridge.
The Contract For Building The Original Golden Gate Bridge Approach Cost $400,000 In 1931. General J.A. Day, Formerly In Charge Of Building Bridges In North Africa, Was In Charge Of Construction And He Had Subcontracted Work On This Project Because Of His Experiences There And Because Under Construction Conditions Northern California Is Similar To North Africa When It Comes To Winter Weather Conditions.
In 1932, General J.A. Day Was Made The General Manager Of The Golden Gate Bridge Construction Project And He Was Recognized As The Experienced Bridge Builder That Was Needed To Build The New Approach Over A Railroad Chute. This Project Was Known As Bid No. 4. It Had Been Approved By The Board Of Supervisors, A Special Permit Was Obtained From The U.S. Coast Guard, A Contract With Boma Steel To Purchase Steel For Building Piers And Ties As Well As Fabrication Of Building Material For This Project Was Approved By The District At An Average Cost Of $16,500 per Mile When Other Countries Were Using Steel For Bridges At A Cost Less Than One-Third That Amounts To Build Bridges There.
In 1932, Bid No. 5—the Golden Gate Bridge Approach—Was Awarded To The James R. Garfield Construction Company For $1 Million. This New Route Was To Be Located On The Southern Side Of The Golden Gate Strait From A Point About 2 Miles South Of Sausalito And Extend About 7 Miles To A Point About 3 Miles North Of San Francisco. The Trail That Existed Along That Path Was Replaced With Steel Stringers Connected By Concrete Piers Every 200 Feet And Tied Together With Strings That Were Suspended From Towers That Were Located At 300-Foot Intervals.
In 1933, Bid No. 6—Building The Approach On The Marin County Coastline—Was Awarded To The San Francisco-North Pacific Company For $1.5 Million. This Route Started From Fort Baker Below Sausalito And Went Over The Coast To A Point 2 Miles North Of Fort Barry. Work On This Project Began In June 1933.
The District Board Approved Bid No. 7—Building Approach Piers—In 1933 Which Cost $2 Million. Work Started On June 20, 1933 And Was Completed By August 1934 With General J.A Day’s Company Receiving A Bonus Of One-Hundred Thousand Dollars For Its Efficient Workmanship During Construction And Completion Of This Project.
On February 13, 1934, Bid No. 8 (part of Bid No. 4) Was Approved For $3.5 Million To Construct the Golden Gate Bridge Approach By The James R. Garfield Company And Work Began On March 1, 1934. This Work Was Completed In July 1935 When Contractor General J.A. Day Received A Bonus Of $1 Million Plus A Bonus For The Speed With Which Work Was Completed, $25,000—One-Half To General J.A. Day And The Other-Half To His Company.
In 1934, Bid No. 9—The Approach Piers—Was Approved By The District Board At An Estimated Cost Of $1.5 Million, While A Supplemental Contract Was Contracted For $500,000 For Construction Of Additional Work Necessary To Complete This Project As Estimated By District Engineer William E. Winters Upon Which Work Began In July 1934 When All Work On This Project Had Been Completed Except The Stringers Between Fort Baker And Fort Barry, These Were Never Completed Due To Severe Weather Conditions That caused Losses During Construction.
In 1935, Bid No. 10—The Approach Piers—Was Approved By The District Board And The James R. Garfield Construction Company Was Awarded A Contract For $1 Million. Work Began In August 1935 On This Project, Which Consisted Of Laying Concrete Piers And Constructing Ties Between Them On The Coastline Approach, Between Fort Baker And Fort Barry. When This Project Was Completed In May 1936, General J.A Day Received A Bonus Of One-Hundred Seventy-Five Thousand Dollars For His Company’s Efficiency In Construction Workmanship During This Period.
In 1936, Bid No. 11—Replacement Of The Cables—Was Approved By The District Board At A Cost Of $1.5 Million And Work Began June 20, 1936.
In 1937, Bid No. 12—The Replacement Of The Cables– Was Approved By The District Board At An Estimated Cost Of $1 Million And There Was A Supplemental Contract For $250,000 For Construction Necessary To Complete This Project As Estimated Upon Which Work Began January 1, 1937. When This Project Was Completed In May 1937, General J.A. Day Received A Bonus Of One-Hundred And Twenty-five Thousand Dollars For His Company’s Efficiency In Construction Workmanship During This Period.
In 1938, Bid No. 13—The Replacement Of The Cables—Was Approved By The District Board At An Estimated Cost Of $3.5 Million And Work Began March 15, 1938.
In 1939, Bid No. 14—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board At An Estimated Cost Of $4 Million and Work Began May 27, 1939.
In 1940, Bid No. 15—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board At An Estimated Cost Of $5.5 Million and Work Began October 8, 1940.
In 1941, Bid No. 16—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By the District Board At An Estimated Cost Of $6 Million And Work Began January 10, 1942.
In 1942, Bid No. 17—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $7 Million And Work Began July 16, 1942. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Bridge’s Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 18).
In 1943, Bid No. 18—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $8 Million And Work Began January 10, 1943. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 19).
In 1944, Bid No. 19—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $10 Million And Work Began July 10, 1944. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 20).
In 1945, Bid No. 20—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $11 Million And Work Began May 4, 1945. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 21).
In 1946, Bid No. 21—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $12 Million And Work Began March 20, 1946. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 22).
In 1947, Bid No. 22—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $13 Million And Work Began January 12, 1947. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 23).
In 1948, Bid No. 23—The Replacement of the Cables was Approved By The District Board at An Estimated Cost Of $14 Million And Work Began January 10, 1948. This Project Was Part Of Their Contract For Building The Steel Superstructure (Bid No. 24).
After completion of this project, the Golden Gate Bridge’s main cable system is now stronger than ever before with a life expectancy of many years to come.
This El Salvador history documentary is a unique summary of the ancient history of the country of El Salvador. It covers the history of this country from Lenca to President Funes. El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador (Spanish: República de El Salvador, literally “Republic of The Saviour”), is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America.
It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south by the Pacific Ocean. El Salvador’s capital and largest city is San Salvador. As of 2018, the country had a population of approximately 6.42 million, mostly consisting of European and Native American descent. El Salvador was, for millennia, controlled by several Mesoamerican nations, especially Lenca, early Mayans, then later the Cuzcatlecs up until the Spanish conquest.
Archaeological monuments also suggest an early Olmec presence around the first millennium BCE. In the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. However the Viceroyalty of Mexico had little to no influence in the daily affairs of the Central American isthmus, which would be colonized in 1524. In 1609 the area became the Captaincy General of Guatemala, of which El Salvador was part until its independence from Spain, which took place in 1821, as part of the First Mexican Empire, then later seceded, as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, in 1823. When the Republic dissolved in 1841, El Salvador became a sovereign nation, then formed a short-lived union with Honduras and Nicaragua called the Greater Republic of Central America, which lasted from 1895 to 1898. From the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers.
Persistent socioeconomic inequality and civil unrest culminated in the devastating Salvadoran Civil War (1979–1992), which was fought between the military-led government and a coalition of left-wing guerrilla groups. The conflict ended with the Chapultepec Peace Accords. This negotiated settlement established a multiparty constitutional republic, which remains in place to this day. El Salvador’s economy has historically been dominated by agriculture, beginning with the indigo plant (añil in Spanish), the most important crop during the colonial period, and followed thereafter by coffee, which by the early 20th century accounted for 90% of export earnings.
El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying its economy by opening up trade and financial links and expanding the manufacturing sector. The colón, the currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the United States dollar in 2001. #ELSalvador #ElSalvadorHistory #HistoryVideos
Often times your PC starts to run your apps pretty slow. Before you decide to upgrade your hardware, try these tips to squeeze as much performance as possible form your Window 10 PC.
https://youtu.be/V1pvuGNVMPg
Here are 15 tips that could help you speed up your slow Windows 10 PC
0:00 – Disable background apps and free up 1-3 GB of RAM
0:52 – Enable a High Performance power option in Windows 10 and other optimizations
1:51 – Disable unnecessary startup applications in Windows 10 to speed up your Windows 10 PC
2:29 – Free up hard drive space by deleting temporary files in Windows 10 to speed up your PC
3:17 – Free up hard drive space by deleting unnecessary Windows 10 apps and removing temporary files
4:06 – Turn off file indexing in Windows 10 to speed up your PC
4:42 – Get higher FPS in games with a proper power plan and by capping the frame-rate with an NVIDIA graphics card
5:29 – Turn off unnecessary animations in Windows 10 to speed up your PC
5:59 – How to get more FPS in competitive video games “Adjust for best performance”
6:15 – Get more FPS in competitive video games: turn off anti-aliasing, lens effects and zoom in depth of field. Set reflections to lowest possible level.
6:40 – Get 30% more FPS in PC video games: Turn on T-AA anti-aliasing and set it to 85% (downscale)
7:40 – Boost PC performance by adjusting the virtual memory paging file size (use with caution)
The region of Hong Kong has been inhabited since the Old Stone Age, later becoming part of the Chinese empire with its loose incorporation into the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). Starting out as a farming fishing village and salt production site, it became an important free port and eventually a major international financial centre.
The Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong to the British Empire in 1842 through the treaty of Nanjing, ending the First Opium War. Hong Kong then became a British crown colony. Britain also won the Second Opium War, forcing the Qing Empire to cede Kowloon in 1860, while leasing the New Territories for 99 years from 1898.
Japan occupied Hong Kong from 1941 to 1945 during the Second World War. By the end of the war in 1945, Hong Kong had been liberated by joint British and Chinese troops and returned to British rule. Hong Kong greatly increased its population from refugees from Mainland China, particularly during the Korea War and the Great Leap Forward. In the 1950s, Hong Kong transformed from a territory of entrepôt trade to one of industry and manufacturing. The Chinese economic reform prompted manufacturers to relocate to China, leading Hong Kong to develop its commercial and financial industry.
In 1984, the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration, which incited a wave of emigration from Hong Kong. The Handover of Hong Kong on July 1, 1997, returned Hong Kong to Chinese rule, and it adopted the Hong Kong Basic Law.
In the 21st century, Hong Kong has continued to enjoy success as a financial center. However, civil unrest, dissatisfaction with the government and Chinese influence, in general, has been a central issue. The planned implementation of Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 caused great controversy and a massive demonstration on 1 July 2003, causing the bill to be shelved. Citizens expressed displeasure at their electoral system, culminating in the 2014 Hong Kong protests. In 2019 the proposed Hong Kong extradition bill was seen as another step taken by the Chinese Communist Party to undermine the law and human rights in Hong Kong, instigating multiple protests.
There are three principal eras of the History of Japan – the Jōmon period, Yayoi period, and Kofun period.
The Jōmon Period is also sometimes called the “Stone Age” in English. This may be variously dated from 14500 BCE to 300 BCE The Yayoi Period is also sometimes known as ”The Late Stone Age”. This may be variously dated from 300 BCE to CE 300. The Kofun Period is also sometimes known as “ancient times” or “old age” in English. This may be variously dated from CE 300 to CE 660.
The Yayoi Period is an era of Japanese history that corresponds roughly to the late phase of the Jōmon period (about 300 BCE to CE 300) and lasted into the early Kofun period (about 300 to 600 CE), although there is some overlap with preceding and following periods. Colloquially, it can refer to both the final part of the Jōmon period and the whole of the subsequent Kofun period, i.e., from about 400 BCE until about CE 650 or 700.
Yayoi culture flourished in a number of sites spread generally from inland Kyushu to the Inland Sea. Archaeological evidence attests to a growing population and increasing social complexity during this period. Ritual burial practices, which first appeared late in the Jōmon period, reached their peak during the Yayoi. Yayoi farmers practiced primitive forms of agriculture with simple tools made of stone or metal.
The Yayoi Period is thought to have lasted for about 300 years, during which time massive emigration took place into Japan across the Tsushima Strait. Although archaeological evidence indicates that emigration from mainland Asia to Japan was a massive undertaking, it is difficult to know how many people actually crossed the sea or when the movement started. The earliest settlements include Haniwa, Ganja and Jar-gu.
During the Yayoi period, Chinese writing arrived in Japan and by AD 300 it had greatly influenced the writing of Japanese. By this time, Classical Chinese had become widely used in literature and can be seen in stone lanterns, tea cups and tea bowls that have been excavated from burial sites. This is also when used in architecture such as temples and pagodas were constructed using wood with painted stucco surfaces, curved eaves with roof tiles and balconies were added to dwellings.
The Yayoi period is divided into the following sub-periods:
The Heijō period (AD 300–710) is also called the Yamatotakeru period because its capital was at Yamatotakeru-shima (modern-day Ōsaki, Settsu). However, modern usage calls it the “Heian” or “Yamato” period to distinguish it from the preceding Kofun period. The capital moved from Yamato to Nara in central Honshū. An important change to Japanese society during Heian was the introduction of Buddhism from Central Asia by Kukai in 724. He established the Japanese Tendai sect and attempted to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism.
The late 8th and early 9th centuries marked the zenith of the power of the Fujiwara clan, which was collectively known as “the nine regents”. The Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural unity known as the . During this period, the capital was adorned with many fine palaces, temples, gardens and sculptures.
Feudal domains governed as military-civilian units called “han” emerged in or around AD 500. By 740 it had evolved into a system that exerted control over large areas of Japan; it survived until 1868. In this system, the hereditary ruler of a territory, the “daimyō”, was a vassal of the “shōgun”, who was in turn a vassal of the “emperor”. The Emperor’s power was also limited by the existence of competing regional lords. In this connection it is significant that on more than one occasion, there were occasions when a child was named as heir but had no parental right to succeed.
Japan’s traditional historical era began in AD 538 on the accession of Emperor Jinmu. This marked the beginning of the Asuka period (538–710), which lasted until 710, when the capital was moved to Heian-kyō (today’s Kyoto), then renamed “Heijō-kyō”. The Emperor Tenji, who moved the capital to Nara, is said to have built the first palace in Heian-kyō.
The period can be divided into early, middle, and late periods.
The middle period (AD 600–800) is sometimes called the “Kana Period” or “Wara Period”. The “Wara” or Japanese “Warrior” monks helped spread Buddhism outside Japan. They often served as Buddhist missionaries in China and Korea.
The Kamakura Period (1185–1333) is sometimes called the “Genroku Era”. It started with the ascension of Minamoto no Yoritomo to the position of “shōgun” in 1192, who established himself as ruler of Japan. This period can be divided into early, middle, and late periods.
The Muromachi Period (1336–1573) is sometimes called the “Sengoku-jūnen-jōn-gū” or “Warring States Period”. It was characterized by struggles between rival samurai clans. Notable battles included those of Odawara, Komaki and Nagakute.
The Tokugawa Period (1603–1868) is sometimes called the “Seiden-shō” or “Edo Period”. It was characterized by strict social order, with emphasis on adulthood and age, which minimized conflict among generations. The feudal system provided certain economic advantages to the government, but at the same time kept political and social power in the hands of a small number of families (daimyō) and clans (samurai). This system lasted for 250 years.
Japanese castles fall into three categories: hilltop castles; river castles; and coastal castles. During the Sengoku period (1467–1603), many battles were fought between clans. Castle towns later grew around castles, and daimyo domains became centers of administration for areas that covered large parts of modern-day prefectures.
Japanese architecture has historically been typified by wooden structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors were used in place of walls, allowing the internal configuration of a space to be altered according to the occasion. People usually sat on cushions or otherwise on the floor, traditionally; chairs and high tables were not widely used until the 20th century.
The first Japanese photographic patent dates to 1853, but the technology was not entirely accepted until the invention of cameras with lenses in the late 1880s. During this time, many photographers moved toward single-lens reflex cameras, which were eventually mass-produced.
The first Japanese movable type printing press was set up by an Englishman named Sharp in 1809 at Hirado, on an island off Nagasaki. He established a small bookshop printing press, which soon became the only medium for printing books and newspapers throughout Japan for almost 100 years. The first Japanese photographer to be awarded a Nobel Prize was Substantially for his photographs of streets and buildings of Tokyo.
Japanese business practices were heavily influenced by the Chinese system of economics and trade, which Japan had long emulated, and to a lesser extent by Western practices. Large companies traded stocks on the Tokyo and Osaka stock exchanges; however, until the 1980s, the Bank of Japan restricted foreign ownership of domestic stocks.
During World War I, Japan sold three German warships to Britain, receiving an urgently needed infusion of hard currency in return. The Allies’ 1914–1915 naval blockade cut off supplies of raw materials for Japanese industry. Trade was diverted to America; many younger people wanted to stay in America or move there. After 1919, Japanese exports soared as high productivity methods were adopted in their factories.
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 is considered to be the beginning of Japanese militarism. Japanese militarism in the 1930s was focused on the acquisition of oil (needed for munitions production), and on securing areas with potential resources (including Manchuria with its rich iron ore deposits). The Kwantung Army was created to defend Manchukuo.
The Mukden Incident, involving the Japanese “Mukden incident”, began on September 18, 1931 when a small group of Chinese soldiers holding a position at a railroad station in Chinchou were attacked by a much larger force from the Kwantung army, resulting in all but one being killed or wounded. The following day, Japan invaded Manchuria.
On November 20, 1940, Tokyo’s foreign ministry sent a message to the French embassy in Tokyo requesting the French government “assist” in ending the war with China. The request was declined. On December 1, the same message was sent to the US via its embassy in Tokyo. It read: “The Japanese government has decided to make a suggestion to the United States Government for terminating the war between Japan and China by accepting the suggestion of President Roosevelt if it can be done on reasonable terms.” The United States responded that it would do so provided all hostilities against countries who are neutral are terminated. On December 2, Japan attacked Hong Kong.
The United States and Britain were alarmed by the expansion of Japanese forces in South East Asia and the Pacific. In 1940, officials from the United States, Britain and other Allied nations released statements denouncing Japan’s further militarization.
On December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan), Japan attacked Pearl Harbor without a declaration of war, bringing the United States into World War II. The Sino-Japanese War—which had begun in 1937 between China and Japan—soon escalated into a much larger conflict called the Second Sino-Japanese War. The period after 1937 was marked by increasing aggression from Japan in China. This culminated in a full scale invasion that resulted in the capture of China’s capital city, Nanjing (Nanking).
In 1939, Japan signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Soviet Union to assure a neutrality agreement between Japan and Russia. In 1941, Japan signed a military alliance with Germany and Italy, forming what was known as the Rome–Tokyo Axis. The purpose of this pact was to deter the US from interfering with Japanese military operations in Asia. Japan also expanded its influence southward by occupying northern French Indochina.
On September 27, 1940, Imperial Japanese Army forces invaded French Indochina and fought the French colonial army in the Battle of Saigon. The Japanese victory ended sixty years of French rule in Indochina.
The subsequent border skirmishes of June 1940 with the Soviet Union at Lake Khasan, at the Manchurian border, and at Changkufeng/Khasan in June–October 1941 are judged to have been acts of self-defense on Japan’s part. The findings of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact were contradicted by the Soviet invasion of Manchukuo in August 1945.
Japan destroyed much of the natural environment through deforestation and industrial development. Various campaigns to preserve Japan’s artistic heritage were also waged in this period. During this time, Japanese art studied Western styles and was transformed into a modern form.
Here is a wonderful video about the American Revolution.
The American Revolution was a pioneer revolt which happened somewhere in the range of 1765 and 1783. The American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies crushed the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) with the help of France, winning freedom from Great Britain and building up the United States of America.
The American colonials imparted “no taxation rate with no political increase” starting with the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. They dismissed the grip of the British Parliament to review them thinking about that they had no administrators in that coordinating edge. Questions dependably expanded to the Boston Massacre in 1770 and the eating up of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, trailed by method for the Boston Tea Party in December 1773.
The British talked back by means of last Boston Harbor and setting up a movement of prison laws which accurately disavowed Massachusetts Bay Colony’s endowments of self-government. Different domains arranged in the back of Massachusetts, and a get-altogether of American Patriot pioneers establishment their own one in everything about sort meeting in past due 1774 at the Continental Congress to kind out their obstruction of Britain; various voyagers held their self control to the Crown and had been alluded to as Loyalists or Tories.
Loads discharged out into fighting among Patriot volunteer equipped power and British regulars when King George’s redcoats endeavored to crush Colonial armed force supplies at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. The question by methods for then molded into struggle, all through which the Patriots (and later their French associates) battle the British and Loyalists in what wound up called the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).
The majority of the thirteen states shaped a Provincial Congress which expressed quality from the past pioneer governments, secured Loyalism, and chose a Continental Army pushed by General George Washington. The Continental Congress explained King George a despot who ventured the wayfarers’ rights as Englishmen, and that they proposed the settlements detached and unprejudiced states on July 2, 1776. The Patriot business endeavor kept up the political procedures for contemplating progressivism and republicanism to oust government and respectability, and they imparted that all men are made similar.
The Continental Army obliged the redcoats out of Boston in March 1776, at any rate that pre-summer season the British were given New York City and its key harbor, which they held for the term of the contention. The Royal Navy expelled ports and got explicit urban zones for brief spans, yet they neglect to crush Washington’s powers.
The Patriots endeavored to assault Canada for the term of the frigidity of 1775–seventy six without headway, yet they were given a British prepared power at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777. France entered the battle as a partner of the US with a goliath outfitted vitality and oceanic power. The fighting through then driven nearer toward the Southern states, where Charles Cornwallis were given a military at Charleston, South Carolina in mid 1780, other than he neglect to choose adequate volunteers from Loyalist typical locals to simply acknowledge viable responsibility for the region.
At last, a joined American and French quality got a next British outfitted power at Yorktown inside the fall of 1781, effectively finishing the fight. The Treaty of Paris was checked September 3, 1783, officially finishing the contention and stating the fresh out of the box new country’s performed detachment from the British Empire. The United States affirmed basically all the area east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British saving control of Canada, and Spain taking Florida.
